Proteína precursora del beta-amiloide (ß-App) y daño axonal difuso tras un traumatismo craneoencefálico: un punto de vista forense / Beta-amiloid precursos protein (ß-App) and diffuse axonal damage after head injuries: a forensic point of view

Resumen La proteína precursora del β- Amiloide (β-APP) es una glicoproteína de membrana y un componente habitual de las neuronas. Tiene funciones en el crecimiento y la adhesión celular tras un traumatismo. Es transportada mediante transporte rápido axonal anterógrado y se acumula dentro de las neuronas cuando se daña citoesqueleto. Este proceso es activo, es decir consume energía. El β-APP no es específico de los traumatismos. Se acumula en cualquier circunstancia en la que se dañen los axones, tal como la hipoxia, alteraciones metabólicas, y cualquier otra causa de edema cerebral y aumento de la presión intracraneal que puedan conducir a un daño axonal difuso (DAI) En el presente estudio estudiamos la expresión de esta proteína en casos de traumatismo cráneo-encefálico con diferente evolución cronológica El daño del citoesqueleto producido por la proteólisis, junto con la alteración de las quinasas y las fosfatasas, aumentan la permeabilidad de la membrana, lo que provoca la entrada de calcio en la célula que, a su vez, activa la calmodulina que hace que los neurofilamentos se compacten, los microtúbulos desaparezcan y se rompa la espectrina. Esta disrupción del citoesqueleto tiene como consecuencia que las sustancias que se transportan a su través, se acumulen, sobre todo en las zonas afectadas por el DAI. Al final de todo este proceso, los axones se rompen, lo que se conoce como axotomía secundaria. El estudio de la acumulación del β-APP es útil para valorar la extensión del DAI y para determinar el tiempo de supervivencia tras el traumatismo o cualquier otro daño cerebral.

Abstract β-Amyloid Precursor Protein (β-APP) is a membrane glycoprotein and a common component of neurons. It is involved in adhesion and cell growth processes after traumatic events. It is carried by anterograde fast axonal transport, and it accumulates inside neurons when the cytoskeleton is damaged. This is a vital biochemical process that consumes energy. β-APP is not specific of traumatic events. It accumulates in any case of axonal damage, whatever its cause may be, like hypoxia, metabolic disorders, and any other circumstances that lead to brain swelling and intracranial pressure rising and in consequence to Diffuse Axonal Injury (DAI). In this study we review the expression of this protein in cases of traumatic brain injury with different chronological evolution. The damage of cytoskeleton due to proteolysis in addition to the disturbance of kinases and phosphatases increase the permeability of the membrane. Calcium gets into the cell and activates calmodulin, thus neurofilaments compact, microtubules disappear and spectrin breaks. This disruption of the cytoskeleton has as consequence that the transported substances accumulate in the most affected areas by DAI. At the end of this process axon breaks, which is known as secondary axotomy. The study of the accumulation of β-APP is useful to assess the extent of DAI and to determine the time elapsed after trauma or another insult to CNS.

Cognitive Assessment in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major public health problem inWestern countries. ATBI brings many negative consequences, including behavioral and cognitive changes, which affect social adjustment and the performance of functional activities. Cognitive evaluation after TBI is a complex issue in what pertains to definition of the most appropriate questionnaires for clinical use in a comprehensive analysis of the condition of the patient. In this paper, we described a critical review of the main cognitive assessment tests currently used in clinical and research settings in patients with TBI.

Dizziness after Traumatic Brain Injury: Neurological Aspects / 대한평형의학회지

Vertigo, dizziness, and disequilibrium are common symptoms following concussion or traumatic brain injury. Dizziness and vertigo may be the result of trauma to the peripheral vestibular system or the central nervous system, or, in some cases, may be due to anxiety, depression, or posttraumatic stress disorder; these mechanisms are not mutually exclusive. While most peripheral vestibular disorders can be identified by testing and examination, those without inner ear causes that have persisting complaints of dizziness and motion sickness are more difficult to understand and to manage. Some of these patients exhibit features compatible with vestibular migraine and may be treated successfully with migraine preventative medications. This paper reviews the neurological causes of persisting dizziness, the possible mechanisms, and the pathophysiology, as a framework for patient management and for future research.

Vestibular Rehabilitation after Traumatic Head Injury with Dizziness / 대한평형의학회지

The vestibular symptoms such as dizziness and imbalance that occurred after traumatic head/brain injury were caused by a combination of central factors such as abnormalities of white matter, diffuse axonal injury and microhemorrhage, and peripheral factors like decreased vestibulo-ocular reflex caused by the energy transmitted to the semicircular canal and otolith organs. These symptoms can affect on the patient's overall physical, cognitive, emotional, and quality of life. There have been reports that vestibular rehabilitation for the treatment of dizziness and imbalance after head trauma can promote vestibular compensation, stabilize of the gaze movements, and also affect the treatment outcomes of the associated injuries. The frequency, duration, and number of people participating in vestibular rehabilitation varied with each study, and physical therapy, occupational therapy, cognitive counseling, medication treatment, duration of treatment for associated injuries were also variable. Most studies have shown that many patients who get the vestibular rehabilitation have a significantly reduced time to return to work and sports activities, and may be able to speed up the recovery of vestibular symptoms. However, further research is needed on its long-term effects. In addition, patients with traumatic head/brain injuries are more susceptible to injuries of other organs as well as vestibular disorders, therefore consideration of treatment planning for associated injuries including precise evaluation mental support, and cognitive therapy is expected to be more effective with vestibular rehabilitation therapy.

Current contribution of diffusion tensor imaging in the evaluation of diffuse axonal injury / Contribuição atual da imagem por tensor de difusão na avaliação da lesão axonal difusa

ABSTRACT Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is the number one cause of death and morbidity among young adults. Moreover, survivors are frequently left with functional disabilities during the most productive years of their lives. One main aspect of TBI pathology is diffuse axonal injury, which is increasingly recognized due to its presence in 40% to 50% of all cases that require hospital admission. Diffuse axonal injury is defined as widespread axonal damage and is characterized by complete axotomy and secondary reactions due to overall axonopathy. These changes can be seen in neuroimaging studies as hemorrhagic focal areas and diffuse edema. However, the diffuse axonal injury findings are frequently under-recognized in conventional neuroimaging studies. In such scenarios, diffuse tensor imaging (DTI) plays an important role because it provides further information on white matter integrity that is not obtained with standard magnetic resonance imaging sequences. Extensive reviews concerning the physics of DTI and its use in the context of TBI patients have been published, but these issues are still hazy for many allied-health professionals. Herein, we aim to review the current contribution of diverse state-of-the-art DTI analytical methods to the understanding of diffuse axonal injury pathophysiology and prognosis, to serve as a quick reference for those interested in planning new studies and who are involved in the care of TBI victims. For this purpose, a comprehensive search in Pubmed was performed using the following keywords: "traumatic brain injury", "diffuse axonal injury", and "diffusion tensor imaging".

RESUMO O traumatismo cranioencefálico (TCE) é a principal causa de morbimortalidade entre adultos jovens. Aqueles que sobrevivem são frequentemente deixados com sequelas funcionais nos anos mais produtivos de suas vidas. O principal aspecto fisiopatológico do TCE é a lesão axonial difusa (LAD), cada vez mais destacada pois está presente em 40 a 50% dos casos que necessitam de internação hospitalar. LAD é definida como a injúria axonial extensa caracterizada pela axoniotomia completa assim como pelas reações secundárias a axoniopatia, que são demonstradas por métodos de neuroimagem como áreas de edema e micro-hemorragia. Entretanto, os achados da LAD são frequentemente subestimados em estudos de neuroimagem convencional. É neste contexto que imagens por tensor de difusão (DTI) ganharam ênfase, já que permitem obter informações sobre a integridade da substância branca que não eram obtidas por sequências convencionais de ressonância magnética (RM). Existem artigos extensos sobre os fundamentos físicos e as aplicações de DTI em pacientes vítimas de TCE, no entanto, estes assuntos permanecem ainda nebulosos a alguns profissionais da área de saúde. Deste modo, propomos uma revisão didática sobre a contribuição do estado da arte de diferentes métodos analíticos de DTI no entendimento do processo da fisiopatologia e prognóstico da LAD, servindo assim como uma ferramenta acessível para aqueles interessados em planejamento de novos estudos e aqueles envolvidos no tratamento de vítimas de TCE. Uma pesquisa abrangente foi realizada no Pubmed com as seguintes palavras-chave: "traumatismo cranioencefálico", "lesão axonial difusa", "imagem por tensor de difusão".

Traumatic Brain Injury Caused by Motor Vehicle Collision and Alcoholism in Piauí

Objectives To determine the relationship between alcohol consumption and the incidence of traumatic brain injury (TBI) with diffuse axonal injury (DAI), determining these indices, checking acquired comorbidities and characterizing the patients by gender, age and race/color, as well as describing the characteristics of the motor vehicle collision (vehicle, period of the day, day of the week and site) in people admitted to an emergency hospital in the city of Teresina, in the state of Piauí, Brazil. Methods We have analyzed the data contained in the medical records of patients admitted with a history of motor vehicle collision and severe TBI in intensive care units, based on the forms provided by the Mobile Emergency Care Service (SAMU, in the Portuguese acronym) in the period between February 28 and November 28, 2013. Results In the period covered by the present study, 200 individuals were analyzed, and 54 (27%) had consumed alcohol; of these 11 had DAI. Of the total sample, 17% (34) presented DAI, however, with unknown data regarding the consumption of alcoholic beverages. Conclusion Considering the data, we observed that the profile of the head trauma patients are brown men, mostly (53.5%) aged between 15 and 30 years. The collisions occurred mostly on weekends and at night (55%), and 89.5% of the crashes involved motorcycles.

Comparative analysis of the electroencephalogram in patients with Alzheimer's disease, diffuse axonal injury patients and healthy controls using LORETA analysis / Análise comparativa do eletroencefalograma em pacientes com doença de alzheimer, lesão axonal difusa e controles saudáveis: e análise loreta

ABSTRACT Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a dementia that affects a large contingent of the elderly population characterized by the presence of neurofibrillary tangles and senile plaques. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a non-degenerative injury caused by an external mechanical force. One of the main causes of TBI is diffuse axonal injury (DAI), promoted by acceleration-deceleration mechanisms. Objective: To understand the electroencephalographic differences in functional mechanisms between AD and DAI groups. Methods: The study included 20 subjects with AD, 19 with DAI and 17 healthy adults submitted to high resolution EEG with 128 channels. Cortical sources of EEG rhythms were estimated by exact low-resolution electromagnetic tomography (eLORETA) analysis. Results: The eLORETA analysis showed that, in comparison to the control (CTL) group, the AD group had increased theta activity in the parietal and frontal lobes and decreased alpha 2 activity in the parietal, frontal, limbic and occipital lobes. In comparison to the CTL group, the DAI group had increased theta activity in the limbic, occipital sublobar and temporal areas. Conclusion: The results suggest that individuals with AD and DAI have impairment of electrical activity in areas important for memory and learning.

RESUMO A dooença de Alzheimer (DA) é uma demência que acomete uma grande parcela da população idosa e caracteriza-se pela presença de emaranhados neurofibrilares e placas senis. O traumatismo cranioencefálico (TCE) é uma lesão não degenerativa causada por uma força mecânica externa. Uma das principais causas de TCE é a lesão axonal difusa (LAD), causada por mecanismos de aceleração-desaceleração. Objetivo: Entender as diferenças dos mecanismos funcionais entre os grupos - DA e LAD do ponto de vista eletroencefalográfico. Métodos: Participaram deste estudo 56 indivíduos adultos. Destes, 20 com DA, 19 com LAD e 17 adultos saudáveis submetidos ao EEG de alta resolução com 128 canais. As fontes corticais dos ritmos do EEG foram estimadas pela análise por tomografia eletromagnética exata de baixa resolução (eLORETA). Resultados: A análise por eLORETA mostrou que, em comparação ao grupo controle (CTL), o grupo DA apresentou aumento da atividade teta nos lobos parietal e frontal e diminuição da atividade alfa 2 nos lobos parietal, frontal, límbico e occipital. Em comparação ao grupo CTL, o grupo LAD apresentou aumento da atividade teta nas áreas límbica, occipital sub-lobar e temporal. Conclusão: Os resultados sugerem que os indivíduos com DA e com LAD apresentam comprometimento da atividade elétrica em áreas importantes para a memória e aprendizagem.

Generalidades de trauma cráneo encefálico en medicina legal / Generalities of traumatic brain injury in legal medicine

Resumen:El Trauma Cráneo Encefálico (TCE) tiene hoy en día una incidencia muy alta de morbilidad y mortalidad en nuestra población, por lo que es de suma importancia esclarecer los conceptos básicos de las lesiones producidas por el TCE, su cronología y el pronóstico de dichos traumas. Este artículo se basa en identificar las lesiones primarias y secundarias más frecuentes y las características más importantes de cada una de ellas, así como describir los mecanismos de trauma frecuentemente implicados.

Abstract:The Brain Trauma (TCE) has a very high incidence of morbidity and mortality in its population today, so it is very important to clarify the basic concepts of the injuries produced by the TCE, its timing and the prognosis of these traumas. This article is based on identifying the most frequent primary and secondary lesions and the most important characteristics of each, as well as describing the mechanisms of trauma frequently involved

Mortality and Epidemiology in 256 Cases of Pediatric Traumatic Brain Injury: Korean Neuro-Trauma Data Bank System (KNTDBS) 2010–2014

OBJECTIVE: Among pediatric injury, brain injury is a leading cause of death and disability. To improve outcomes, many developed countries built neurotrauma databank (NTDB) system but there was not established nationwide coverage NTDB until 2009 and there have been few studies on pediatric traumatic head injury (THI) patients in Korea. Therefore, we analyzed epidemiology and outcome from the big data of pediatric THI. METHODS: We collected data on pediatric patients from 23 university hospitals including 9 regional trauma centers from 2010 to 2014 and analyzed their clinical factors (sex, age, initial Glasgow coma scale, cause and mechanism of head injury, presence of surgery). RESULTS: Among all the 2617 THI patients, total number of pediatric patients was 256. The average age of the subjects was 9.07 (standard deviation±6.3) years old. The male-to female ratio was 1.87 to 1 and male dominance increases with age. The most common cause for trauma were falls and traffic accidents. Age (p=0.007), surgery (p<0.001), mechanism of trauma (p=0.016), subdural hemorrhage (SDH) (p<0.001), diffuse axonal injury (DAI) (p<0.001) were statistically significant associated with severe brain injury. CONCLUSION: Falls were the most common cause of trauma, and age, surgery, mechanism of trauma, SDH, DAI increased with injury severity. There is a critical need for effective fall and traffic accidents prevention strategies for children, and we should give attention to these predicting factors for more effective care.

Diagnostic History of Traumatic Axonal Injury in Patients with Cerebral Concussion and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury

Cerebral concussion and mild traumatic brain injury (TBI) have been used interchangeably, although the two terms have different definitions. Traumatic axonal injury (TAI) is a more severe subtype of TBI than concussion or mild TBI. Regarding the evidence of TAI lesions in patients with concussion or mild TBI, since the 1960’s, several studies have reported on TAI in patients with concussion who showed no radiological evidence of brain injury by autopsy. However, conventional CT and MRI are not sensitive to detection of axonal injury in concussion or mild TBI, therefore, previously, diagnosis of TAI in live patients with concussion or mild TBI could not be demonstrated. With the development of diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) in the 1990’s, in 2002, Arfanakis et al. reported on TAI lesions in live patients with mild TBI using DTI for the first time. Subsequently, hundreds of studies have demonstrated the usefulness of DTI in detection of TAI and TAI lesions in patients with concussion or mild TBI. In Korea, the term “TAI” has rarely been used in the clinical field while diffuse axonal injury and concussion have been widely used. Rare use of TAI in Korea appeared to be related to slow development of DTI analysis techniques in Korea. Therefore, we think that use of DTI analysis techniques for diagnosis of TAI should be facilitated in Korea.

A Viewpoint on Treatment of Traumatic Bilateral Basal Ganglia Hemorrhage in a Child: Case Report / 대한신경손상학회지

Traumatic basal ganglia hemorrhage (TBGH) is a rare presentation of head injuries. Bilateral lesions are extremely rare. The pathophysiologic mechanism of bilateral TBGH seems to be the same as diffuse axonal injury. However, limited information about childhood bilateral TBGH is available in the literature. We report the case of a child with bilateral TBGH treated with stereotactic aspiration of hemorrhage and periodic urokinase irrigation.

Proteomic Analysis of Rat Brain Stem with DAI by MALDI-TOF-MS / 法医学杂志

OBJECTIVE@#To establish a diagnostic model for diffuse axonal injury (DAI) by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). To screen the proteins or peptides associated with DAI for providing the biomarkers with theoretic foundation.@*METHODS@#Fifteen male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into DAI group (n = 10) and control group (n = 5). The protein or peptide expression profiles of rat brain stem were detected by MALDI-TOF-MS. ClinProTools 2.2 software was used to find specific peaks, and a diagnostic model was established by the genetic algorithm.@*RESULTS@#There were significant differences in 61 peaks of DAI group (P < 0.05), 9 peaks were down-regulated and 52 up-regulated. The diagnostic model was established based on 5 different peaks. The specificity and sensitivity of cross validation was 96.14% and 95.98%; while the specificity and sensitivity of blind validation showed was 73.33% and 70.00%, respectively.@*CONCLUSION@#A specific and sensitive diagnostic model of DAI can be established by MALDI-TOF-MS to provide a potential value for determining DAI in forensic practice.

Analysis of Differentially Expressed Proteins Distribution in the Rat Brains with DAI by MALDI-TOF-IMS / 法医学杂志

OBJECTIVES@#To establish the imaging mass spectrometry for analysis of differentially expressed proteins distribution in the rat brains with diffuse axonal injury （DAI） based on matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight imaging mass spectrometry （MALDI-TOF-IMS）.@*METHODS@#MALDI-TOF-IMS scanning were conducted on the brains of DAI group and control group in the m/z range of 1 000 to 20 000 using AutoflexⅢ MALDI-TOF spectrometer. ClinProTool 2.2 software was used for statistical analysis on the data of two groups, and then the differentially expressed proteins were picked out to conduct imaging. The distribution of the proteins with different m/z in the rat brains was observed.@*RESULTS@#Five proteins with different m/z, including 4 963, 5 634, 6 253, 6 714 and 7 532, differentially expressed in the rat brains with DAI.@*CONCLUSIONS@#MALDI-TOF-IMS can be used for studying the differentially expressed proteins in rat brains with DAI and the analysis method is established for exploring the distribution of differentially expressed proteins in the rat brains with DAI using imaging mass spectrometry.

Behavioral and electrophysiological auditory processing measures in traumatic brain injury after acoustically controlled auditory training: a long-term study / Medidas comportamentais e eletrofisiológicas do processamento auditivo em traumatismo craniencefálico após treinamento auditivo acusticamente controlado: estudo de longo prazo

ABSTRACT Objective To investigate the long-term efficacy of acoustically controlled auditory training in adults after tarumatic brain injury. Methods A total of six audioogically normal individuals aged between 20 and 37 years were studied. They suffered severe traumatic brain injury with diffuse axional lesion and underwent an acoustically controlled auditory training program approximately one year before. The results obtained in the behavioral and electrophysiological evaluation of auditory processing immediately after acoustically controlled auditory training were compared to reassessment findings, one year later. Results Quantitative analysis of auditory brainsteim response showed increased absolute latency of all waves and interpeak intervals, bilaterraly, when comparing both evaluations. Moreover, increased amplitude of all waves, and the wave V amplitude was statistically significant for the right ear, and wave III for the left ear. As to P3, decreased latency and increased amplitude were found for both ears in reassessment. The previous and current behavioral assessment showed similar results, except for the staggered spondaic words in the left ear and the amount of errors on the dichotic consonant-vowel test. Conclusion The acoustically controlled auditory training was effective in the long run, since better latency and amplitude results were observed in the electrophysiological evaluation, in addition to stability of behavioral measures after one-year training.

RESUMO Objetivo Investigar a eficácia de longo prazo do treinamento auditivo acusticamente controlado em indivíduos adultos após traumatismo craniencefálico. Métodos Foram estudados seis indivíduos audiologicamente normais com idades entre 20 e 37 anos, que sofreram traumatismo craniencefálico grave com lesão axional difusa, submetidos a um programa de treinamento auditivo acusticamente controlado aproximadamente um ano antes. Foram comparados os resultados obtidos nas avaliações comportamental e eletrofisiológica do processamento auditivo imediatamente após o treinamento auditivo acusticamente controlado e a reavaliação, um ano após. Resultados Quanto ao potencial de tronco encefálico, observou-se aumento da latência absoluta de todas as ondas e os intervalos interpicos, na comparação entre as avaliações, bilateralmente, bem como aumento da amplitude de todas as ondas, sendo a onda V estatisticamente significativa, para a orelha direita e a onda III para a orelha esquerda. Quanto ao P3, observaram-se diminuição da latência e aumento da amplitude do P3 na avaliação atual em ambas as orelhas. A avaliação comportamental atual evidenciou desempenho semelhante nas duas avaliações, exceto no teste dicótico de dissílabos alternados na orelha esquerda e a quantidade de erros no teste dicótico consoante-vogal. Conclusão O treinamento auditivo acusticamente controlado mostrou-se eficaz em longo prazo, uma vez que foram observados resultados melhores de latência e amplitude na avaliação eletrofisiológica, bem como estabilidade das medidas comportamentais após um ano de treinamento.

Recuperação das vítimas de lesão axonial difusa e fatores associados / Outcome of diffuse axonal injury victims and associated factors

Introdução: A lesão axonial difusa (LAD) se destaca entre os ferimentos traumáticos pela gravidade de suas consequências. Entretanto, são poucas as pesquisas que descrevem a recuperação das vítimas e os fatores associados às consequências dessa lesão. Ampliar o conhecimento nessa área e relevante para introduzir novas técnicas na assistência prestada, planejar tratamentos e monitorar a evolução das vítimas. Objetivo: Descrever a recuperação das vítimas com diagnóstico principal de LAD ate 6 meses após trauma e identificar fatores sociodemograficos e clínicos associados a óbito e dependência aos 6 meses após a lesão. Método: Estudo do tipo coorte prospectivo, com dados coletados na internação, alta hospitalar, 3 e 6 meses após a LAD. Fizeram parte do estudo vítimas de LAD com idade 18 anos e 60 anos, admitidas no Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo no período de julho de 2013 a fevereiro de 2014, com escore na escala de coma de Glasgow (ECGl) 8. A recuperação das vítimas de LAD foi analisada pelas diferenças dos resultados da aplicação da escala de Katz e escala de resultados de Glasgow ampliada (ERGA) em 3 períodos de avaliação (alta, 3 e 6 meses após LAD). Foram testadas associações entre variáveis de interesse e óbito, além de dependência até avaliação final. A regressão logística múltipla foi utilizada para identificar modelos para esses desfechos. Resultados: A casuística compôs-se de 78 vítimas com idade média de 32 anos (dp=11,9), 83,3% envolvida em acidentes de transporte e 89,7% do sexo masculino. A média do Injury Severity Score foi de 35,0 (dp=11,9) e do New Injury Severity Score (NISS), 46,2 (dp=15,9).Para a Maximum Abbreviated Injury Scale/cabeça, a média foi de 4,6 (dp=0,5). LAD leve foi observada em 44,9% das vítimas e a grave em 35,9%. Até 6 meses, 30,8% das vítimas foram a óbito e a pontuação média na ERGA dos sobreviventes evoluiu de 3,8 (dp=1,2) na alta para 2,1 (dp=1,6) aos 3 meses e 1,2 (dp=1,6) na avaliação final. Para a escala de Katz, as médias foram de 8,5 (dp=5,5) na alta, de 3,2 (dp= 5,5) aos 3 meses e 1,8 (dp=4,5) aos 6 meses. Diferenças estatisticamente significativas foram observadas na comparação dos resultados de todos os tempos. Apresentaram significância estatística no modelo de regressão logística para óbito as variáveis de gravidade da LAD com hipóxia pela SpO2 e hipotensão com NISS; para dependência, a gravidade da LAD e tempo de internação hospitalar permaneceram no modelo isoladamente. Conclusões: Foi elevada a mortalidade; entretanto, a grande maioria dos sobreviventes alcançou condições condizentes com vida independente aos 6 meses. Nesse período, a recuperação das vítimas foi expressiva, ainda que mais acentuada nos 3 primeiros meses. A LAD grave destacou-se como fator de risco para óbito e dependência. A quase totalidade das vítimas com essa lesão morreu ou estava dependente aos 6 meses após trauma. Como fatores de risco para óbito, também foram identificados o NISS, a hipóxia pela SpO2 e a hipotensão e, para dependência, o tempo de internação hospitalar.

Introduction: Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) stands out from other traumatic injuries because of the severity of its consequences. However, few studies describe outcome and the factors associated to outcome of this type of injury. Enhance knowledge in this area is important to introduce new techniques in the delivery of care, treatment planning and to monitor the recovery of DAI. Objective: Describe outcome of victims with primary diagnosis of DAI 6 months after trauma and identify sociodemographic and clinical factors associated to mortality and dependence 6 months after injury. Method: Prospective cohort study with data from admission, discharge, 3 and 6 months after DAI. Participants were DAI victims aged 18 years and 60 years old, admitted to the Hospital das Clínicas da Universidade de São Paulo from July 2013 to February 2014, with a Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) 8. The outcome of victims was analyzed by the differences found between the results of the Katz scale and the Extended Glasgow Outcome scale (GOS-E) in three different periods (discharge, 3 and 6 months after DAI). Associations between variables of interest and mortality, and dependence to final evaluation were tested. Multiple logistic regression was applied to identify models of these outcomes. Results: The sample consisted of 78 victims with an average age of 32 years (SD=11.9), 83.3% involved in traffic accidents, and 89.7% were male. The mean Injury Severity Score was 35.0 (SD=11.9) and the New Injury Severity Score (NISS) was 46.2 (SD=15.9). For the Maximum Abbreviated Injury Scale/head, the average was 4.6 (SD=0.5). Mild DAI was observed in 44.9% of the victims and severe DAI was observed in 35.9%. Up to 6 months, 30.8% of the victims died and the average score in GOS-E survivors increased from 3.8 (SD=1.2) at discharge to 2.1 (SD=1.6) at 3 months and 1.2 (SD=1.6) at the final evaluation.According to Katz scale, the average was 8.5 (SD=5.5) at discharge, 3.2 (SD=5.5) at 3 months and 1.8 (SD=4.5) at 6 months. Statistically significant differences were observed comparing the results from all periods. In the regression model for mortality the variables of DAI severity with hypoxia by SpO2 and hypotension with NISS were statistically relevant; for dependence, the DAI severity and the hospitalization period remained in the model alone. Conclusions: Besides the high mortality, the vast majority of survivors reached conditions consistent with independent living at 6 months after injury. During this period, the recovery of victims was increased, although more pronounced in the first 3 months. Severe DAI stood out as a risk factor for mortality and dependence. Almost all the victims died or were dependent six months after trauma. NISS, hypoxia by SpO2 and hypotension were also identified as risk factors related to mortality; the length of hospitalization was identified as a risk factor related to dependence on outcome.

Clinical Applications of Neuroimaging with Susceptibility Weighted Imaging: Review Article

PURPOSE: Susceptibility-weighted magnetic resonance (MR) sequence is three-dimensional (3D), spoiled gradient-echo pulse sequences that provide a high sensitivity for the detection of blood degradation products, calcifications, and iron deposits. This pictorial review is aimed at illustrating and discussing its main clinical applications. MATERIALS AND METHODS: SWI is based on high-resolution, 3D, fully velocity-compensated gradient-echo sequences using both magnitude and phase images. To enhance the visibility of the venous structures, the magnitude images are multiplied with a phase mask generated from the filtered phase data, which are displayed at best after post-processing of the 3D dataset with the minimal intensity projection algorithm. A total of 200 patients underwent MR examinations that included SWI on a 3 tesla MR imager were enrolled. RESULTS: SWI is very useful in detecting multiple brain disorders. Among the 200 patients, 80 showed developmental venous anomaly, 22 showed cavernous malformation, 12 showed calcifications in various conditions, 21 showed cerebrovascular accident with susceptibility vessel sign or microbleeds, 52 showed brain tumors, 2 showed diffuse axonal injury, 3 showed arteriovenous malformation, 5 showed dural arteriovenous fistula, 1 showed moyamoya disease, and 2 showed Parkinson's disease. CONCLUSION: SWI is useful in detecting occult low flow vascular lesions, calcification and microbleed and characterising diverse brain disorders.

Disability identification for cases with clinical diagnosis of diffuse axonal injury due to traffic accidents: a study of 89 cases / 法医学杂志

OBJECTIVE@#To study the disability identification for cases with clinical diagnosis of diffuse axonal injury (DAI) due to traffic accidents, and to explore the possible effects of DAI on identification results.@*METHODS@#Five hundred and fifty-six cases of cerebral injury due to traffic accidents were collected, including 467 cases diagnosed with cerebral contusion or laceration and 89 cases diagnosed with DAI. The identification results of different groups with diagnosis of DAI diagnosis, diagnosis of DAI with cerebral contusion (laceration), and diagnosis of cerebral contusion or laceration without DAI were compared and statistically analyzed, based on the results of CT and MRI re-review.@*RESULTS@#The disability identification levels in DAI group (20 cases), DAI group (69 cases) with cerebral contusion (laceration) and DAI group (467 cases) not complicated by cerebral contusion (laceration) were 7.72 +/- 1.09, 7.78 +/- 1.11, and 8.86 +/- 0.66, respectively. The disability levels of the two groups diagnosed with DAI were higher than those of the group without DAI diagnosis (P < 0.05).@*CONCLUSION@#Patients with DAI diagnosis might have more severe cerebral injury. In the identification process, one should pay attention to the possible missed diagnosis and misdiagnosis, and meanwhile avoid relying on those evidences provided only by CT and MRI.